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what advances were made in the field of medicinal chemistry during the period from 1700 to 1900?

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List of events in the history of chemical science

This timeline of chemistry lists important works, discoveries, ideas, inventions, and experiments that significantly changed humanity's understanding of the modern science known as chemistry, defined every bit the scientific report of the limerick of affair and of its interactions.

Known every bit "the key scientific discipline", the study of chemistry is strongly influenced by, and exerts a strong influence on, many other scientific and technological fields. Many historical developments that are considered to have had a significant impact upon our modernistic agreement of chemical science are also considered to have been cardinal discoveries in such fields as physics, biological science, astronomy, geology, and materials scientific discipline.[1]

Pre-17th century [edit]

Ambix, cucurbit and retort, the alchemical implements of Zosimus c. 300, from Marcelin Berthelot, Drove des anciens alchimistes grecs (three vol., Paris, 1887–88)

Prior to the acceptance of the scientific method and its application to the field of chemical science, it is somewhat controversial to consider many of the people listed below as "chemists" in the modernistic sense of the word. However, the ideas of sure nifty thinkers, either for their prescience, or for their broad and long-term acceptance, bear listing hither.

c. 450 BC
Empedocles asserts that all things are equanimous of iv primal roots (later to be renamed stoicheia or elements): globe, air, fire, and water, whereby 2 active and opposing cosmic forces, dear and strife, act upon these elements, combining and separating them into infinitely varied forms.[ii]
c. 440 BC
Leucippus and Democritus propose the idea of the atom, an indivisible particle that all thing is fabricated of. This idea is largely rejected by natural philosophers in favor of the Aristotlean view (run across below).[three] [4]
c. 360 BC
Plato coins term 'elements' (stoicheia) and in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a rudimentary treatise on chemistry, assumes that the minute particle of each chemical element had a special geometric shape: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (h2o), and cube (earth).[v]
c. 350 BC
Aristotle, expanding on Empedocles, proposes thought of a substance as a combination of matter and class. Describes theory of the Five Elements, fire, water, world, air, and aether. This theory is largely accepted throughout the western world for over g years.[6]
c. 50 BC
Lucretius publishes De Rerum Natura, a poetic description of the ideas of atomism.[vii]
c. 300
Zosimos of Panopolis writes some of the oldest known books on alchemy, which he defines as the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies.[eight]
c. 800
The Clandestine of Creation (Arabic: Sirr al-khalīqa), an anonymous encyclopedic work on natural philosophy falsely attributed to Apollonius of Tyana, records the earliest known version of the long-held theory that all metals are equanimous of various proportions of sulfur and mercury.[9] This same work besides contains the earliest known version of the Emerald Tablet,[10] a meaty and cryptic Hermetic text which was still commented upon past Isaac Newton.[11]
c. 850–900
Standard arabic works attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Latin: Geber) introduce a systematic nomenclature of chemical substances, and provide instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means.[12]
c. 900
Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (Latin: Rhazes), a Farsi alchemist, conducts experiments with the distillation of sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride), vitriols (hydrated sulfates of various metals), and other salts,[thirteen] representing the offset step in a long process that would eventually atomic number 82 to the thirteenth-century discovery of the mineral acids.[14]
c. g
Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[15] and Avicenna,[xvi] both Persian philosophers, deny the possibility of the transmutation of metals.
c. 1100–1200
Recipes for the production of aqua ardens ("called-for water", i.e., ethanol) by distilling wine with common salt beginning to appear in a number of Latin alchemical works.[17]
c. 1220
Robert Grosseteste publishes several Aristotelian commentaries where he lays out an early on framework for the scientific method.[18]
c 1250
The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating ethanol involving repeated partial distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an ethanol purity of 90% could be obtained.[nineteen]
c 1260
St Albertus Magnus discovers arsenic[20] [ better source needed ] and silverish nitrate.[21] [ better source needed ] He also fabricated one of the starting time references to sulfuric acrid.[22]
c. 1267
Roger Bacon publishes Opus Maius, which among other things, proposes an early form of the scientific method, and contains results of his experiments with gunpowder.[23]
c. 1310
Pseudo-Geber, an anonymous alchemist who wrote under the name of Geber (i.e., Jābir ibn Hayyān, see higher up), publishes the Summa perfectionis magisterii, a book containing experimental demonstrations of the corpuscular nature of matter that was still being used by seventeenth-century chemists such as Daniel Sennert.[24] He is one of the first to describe nitric acid, aqua regia, and aqua fortis.[25]
c. 1530
Paracelsus develops the study of iatrochemistry, a subdiscipline of alchemy dedicated to extending life, thus beingness the roots of the modern pharmaceutical industry. It is besides claimed that he is the kickoff to use the word "chemistry".[eight]
1597
Andreas Libavius publishes Alchemia, a prototype chemistry textbook.[26]

17th and 18th centuries [edit]

1605
Sir Francis Bacon publishes The Proficience and Advancement of Learning, which contains a description of what would afterward be known as the scientific method.[27]
1605
Michal Sedziwój publishes the alchemical treatise A New Calorie-free of Alchemy which proposed the existence of the "food of life" within air, much later recognized equally oxygen.[28]
1615
Jean Beguin publishes the Tyrocinium Chymicum, an early chemistry textbook, and in it draws the kickoff-ever chemic equation.[29]
1637
René Descartes publishes Discours de la méthode, which contains an outline of the scientific method.[30]
1648
Posthumous publication of the book Ortus medicinae by Jan Baptist van Helmont, which is cited by some equally a major transitional work betwixt alchemy and chemistry, and as an important influence on Robert Boyle. The book contains the results of numerous experiments and establishes an early version of the law of conservation of mass.[31]

Championship folio of The Sceptical Chymist by Robert Boyle (1627–91)

1661
Robert Boyle publishes The Sceptical Chymist, a treatise on the distinction between chemistry and alchemy. Information technology contains some of the earliest modern ideas of atoms, molecules, and chemical reaction, and marks the first of the history of modern chemistry.[32]
1662
Robert Boyle proposes Boyle's law, an experimentally based description of the behavior of gases, specifically the relationship between pressure level and volume.[32]
1735
Swedish pharmacist Georg Brandt analyzes a nighttime blue pigment found in copper ore. Brandt demonstrated that the pigment contained a new element, later named cobalt.[33] [34]
1754
Joseph Blackness isolates carbon dioxide, which he called "fixed air".[35]

A typical chemical laboratory of the 18th century

1757
Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt, while investigating arsenic compounds, creates Cadet's fuming liquid, later discovered to be cacodyl oxide, considered to exist the first synthetic organometallic compound.[36]
1758
Joseph Blackness formulates the concept of latent heat to explain the thermochemistry of phase changes.[37]
1766
Henry Cavendish discovers hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and tin form an explosive mixture with air.[38]
1773–1774
Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Joseph Priestley independently isolate oxygen, called by Priestley "dephlogisticated air" and Scheele "burn air".[39] [forty]

1778
Antoine Lavoisier, considered "The father of mod chemical science",[41] recognizes and names oxygen, and recognizes its importance and role in combustion.[42]
1787
Antoine Lavoisier publishes Méthode de nomenclature chimique, the get-go mod system of chemical classification.[42]
1787
Jacques Charles proposes Charles'south police force, a corollary of Boyle'southward constabulary, describes relationship between temperature and volume of a gas.[43]
1789
Antoine Lavoisier publishes Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, the showtime modern chemistry textbook. Information technology is a complete survey of (at that time) modern chemistry, including the first concise definition of the law of conservation of mass, and thus likewise represents the founding of the bailiwick of stoichiometry or quantitative chemical analysis.[42] [44]
1797
Joseph Proust proposes the law of definite proportions, which states that elements always combine in pocket-size, whole number ratios to form compounds.[45]
1800
Alessandro Volta devises the commencement chemical battery, thereby founding the discipline of electrochemistry.[46]

19th century [edit]

1803
John Dalton proposes Dalton's constabulary, which describes human relationship between the components in a mixture of gases and the relative pressure each contributes to that of the overall mixture.[47]
1805
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac discovers that water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one office oxygen past book.[48]
1808
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac collects and discovers several chemical and physical backdrop of air and of other gases, including experimental proofs of Boyle'southward and Charles's laws, and of relationships between density and composition of gases.[49]
1808
John Dalton publishes New System of Chemical Philosophy, which contains first modern scientific description of the atomic theory, and articulate description of the police of multiple proportions.[47]
1808
Jöns Jakob Berzelius publishes Lärbok i Kemien in which he proposes modern chemic symbols and note, and of the concept of relative atomic weight.[50]
1811
Amedeo Avogadro proposes Avogadro's police, that equal volumes of gases under abiding temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.[51]

Structural formula of urea

1825
Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig perform the first confirmed discovery and caption of isomers, earlier named by Berzelius. Working with cyanic acid and fulminic acid, they correctly deduce that isomerism was caused by differing arrangements of atoms within a molecular structure.[52]
1827
William Prout classifies biomolecules into their modern groupings: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.[53]
1828
Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes urea, thereby establishing that organic compounds could be produced from inorganic starting materials, disproving the theory of vitalism.[52]
1832
Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig discover and explain functional groups and radicals in relation to organic chemistry.[52]
1840
Germain Hess proposes Hess's law, an early on statement of the constabulary of conservation of energy, which establishes that free energy changes in a chemic procedure depend only on the states of the starting and production materials and not on the specific pathway taken betwixt the two states.[54]
1847
Hermann Kolbe obtains acerb acid from completely inorganic sources, further disproving vitalism.[55]
1848
Lord Kelvin establishes concept of absolute zero, the temperature at which all molecular motility ceases.[56]
1849
Louis Pasteur discovers that the racemic course of tartaric acid is a mixture of the levorotatory and dextrotatory forms, thus clarifying the nature of optical rotation and advancing the field of stereochemistry.[57]
1852
August Beer proposes Beer's law, which explains the relationship betwixt the composition of a mixture and the amount of light it will blot. Based partly on before work past Pierre Bouguer and Johann Heinrich Lambert, it establishes the analytical technique known as spectrophotometry.[58]
1855
Benjamin Silliman, Jr. pioneers methods of petroleum cracking, which makes the unabridged modern petrochemical industry possible.[59]
1856
William Henry Perkin synthesizes Perkin's mauve, the first constructed dye. Created as an accidental byproduct of an attempt to create quinine from coal tar. This discovery is the foundation of the dye synthesis industry, one of the primeval successful chemical industries.[60]
1857
Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz proposes that carbon is tetravalent, or forms exactly 4 chemical bonds.[61]
1859–1860
Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen lay the foundations of spectroscopy as a means of chemical analysis, which atomic number 82 them to the discovery of caesium and rubidium. Other workers shortly used the same technique to discover indium, thallium, and helium.[62]
1860
Stanislao Cannizzaro, resurrecting Avogadro's ideas regarding diatomic molecules, compiles a tabular array of atomic weights and presents information technology at the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress, ending decades of alien atomic weights and molecular formulas, and leading to Mendeleev's discovery of the periodic police force.[63]
1862
Alexander Parkes exhibits Parkesine, one of the earliest synthetic polymers, at the International Exhibition in London. This discovery formed the foundation of the modern plastics manufacture.[64]
1862
Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois publishes the telluric helix, an early, 3-dimensional version of the periodic tabular array of the elements.[65]
1864
John Newlands proposes the law of octaves, a precursor to the periodic law.[65]
1864
Lothar Meyer develops an early version of the periodic table, with 28 elements organized by valence.[66]
1864
Cato Maximilian Guldberg and Peter Waage, building on Claude Louis Berthollet's ideas, proposed the police force of mass action.[67] [68] [69]
1865
Johann Josef Loschmidt determines exact number of molecules in a mole, later named Avogadro'south number.[seventy]
1865
Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, based partially on the work of Loschmidt and others, establishes construction of benzene as a six carbon band with alternating single and double bonds.[61]
1865
Adolf von Baeyer begins work on indigo dye, a milestone in modern industrial organic chemical science which revolutionizes the dye industry.[71]

1869
Dmitri Mendeleev publishes the first modern periodic table, with the 66 known elements organized past diminutive weights. The strength of his table was its ability to accurately predict the properties of as-however unknown elements.[65] [66]
1873
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Achille Le Bel, working independently, develop a model of chemical bonding that explains the chirality experiments of Pasteur and provides a concrete crusade for optical activity in chiral compounds.[72]
1876
Josiah Willard Gibbs publishes On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, a compilation of his work on thermodynamics and physical chemical science which lays out the concept of free free energy to explain the physical basis of chemical equilibria.[73]
1877
Ludwig Boltzmann establishes statistical derivations of many important concrete and chemical concepts, including entropy, and distributions of molecular velocities in the gas phase.[74]
1883
Svante Arrhenius develops ion theory to explain conductivity in electrolytes.[75]
1884
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff publishes Études de Dynamique chimique, a seminal study on chemical kinetics.[76]
1884
Hermann Emil Fischer proposes structure of purine, a primal construction in many biomolecules, which he afterward synthesized in 1898. Also begins work on the chemistry of glucose and related sugars.[77]
1884
Henry Louis Le Chatelier develops Le Chatelier'south principle, which explains the response of dynamic chemical equilibria to external stresses.[78]
1885
Eugen Goldstein names the cathode ray, afterward discovered to be composed of electrons, and the canal ray, later discovered to exist positive hydrogen ions that had been stripped of their electrons in a cathode ray tube. These would subsequently be named protons.[79]
1893
Alfred Werner discovers the octahedral construction of cobalt complexes, thus establishing the field of coordination chemical science.[80]
1894–1898
William Ramsay discovers the noble gases, which fill a big and unexpected gap in the periodic tabular array and led to models of chemic bonding.[81]
1897
J. J. Thomson discovers the electron using the cathode ray tube.[82]
1898
Wilhelm Wien demonstrates that canal rays (streams of positive ions) can exist deflected by magnetic fields, and that the amount of deflection is proportional to the mass-to-charge ratio. This discovery would lead to the analytical technique known as mass spectrometry.[83]
1898
Maria Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie isolate radium and polonium from pitchblende.[84]
c. 1900
Ernest Rutherford discovers the source of radioactive decay as decaying atoms; coins terms for various types of radiation.[85]

20th century [edit]

1903
Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet invents chromatography, an important analytic technique.[86]
1904
Hantaro Nagaoka proposes an early nuclear model of the atom, where electrons orbit a dense massive nucleus.[87]
1905
Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch develop the Haber process for making ammonia from its elements, a milestone in industrial chemistry with deep consequences in agriculture.[88]
1905
Albert Einstein explains Brownian motion in a mode that definitively proves atomic theory.[89]
1907
Leo Hendrik Baekeland invents bakelite, one of the first commercially successful plastics.[xc]

1909
Robert Millikan measures the charge of individual electrons with unprecedented accuracy through the oil drib experiment, confirming that all electrons accept the same accuse and mass.[91]
1909
S. P. L. Sørensen invents the pH concept and develops methods for measuring acerbity.[92]
1911
Antonius van den Broek proposes the idea that the elements on the periodic table are more properly organized past positive nuclear accuse rather than diminutive weight.[93]
1911
The outset Solvay Briefing is held in Brussels, bringing together nearly of the most prominent scientists of the solar day. Conferences in physics and chemical science continue to be held periodically to this day.[94]
1911
Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger, and Ernest Marsden perform the gilded foil experiment, which proves the nuclear model of the atom, with a small, dense, positive nucleus surrounded past a diffuse electron cloud.[85]
1912
William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg advise Bragg'south law and establish the field of 10-ray crystallography, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances.[95]
1912
Peter Debye develops the concept of molecular dipole to describe disproportionate charge distribution in some molecules.[96]

The Bohr model of the cantlet

1913
Niels Bohr introduces concepts of quantum mechanics to atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the Bohr model of the atom, where electrons be but in strictly defined orbitals.[97]
1913
Henry Moseley, working from Van den Broek'southward earlier idea, introduces concept of atomic number to fix inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight.[98]
1913
Frederick Soddy proposes the concept of isotopes, that elements with the same chemic properties may have differing atomic weights.[99]
1913
J. J. Thomson expanding on the piece of work of Wien, shows that charged subatomic particles can be separated by their mass-to-charge ratio, a technique known equally mass spectrometry.[100]
1916
Gilbert N. Lewis publishes "The Atom and the Molecule", the foundation of valence bail theory.[101]
1921
Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach establish concept of breakthrough mechanical spin in subatomic particles.[102]
1923
Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall publish Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances, start modern treatise on chemic thermodynamics.[103]
1923
Gilbert North. Lewis develops the electron pair theory of acid/base reactions.[101]
1924
Louis de Broglie introduces the wave-model of atomic construction, based on the ideas of wave–particle duality.[104]
1925
Wolfgang Pauli develops the exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons around a single nucleus may have the same quantum state, as described by 4 breakthrough numbers.[105]

H ( t ) | ψ ( t ) ⟩ = i ℏ d d t | ψ ( t ) ⟩ {\displaystyle H(t)|\psi (t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi (t)\rangle }

The Schrödinger equation

1926
Erwin Schrödinger proposes the Schrödinger equation, which provides a mathematical basis for the moving ridge model of atomic construction.[106]
1927
Werner Heisenberg develops the dubiousness principle which, among other things, explains the mechanics of electron motion around the nucleus.[107]
1927
Fritz London and Walter Heitler apply quantum mechanics to explicate covalent bonding in the hydrogen molecule,[108] which marked the birth of quantum chemistry.[109]
1929
Linus Pauling publishes Pauling's rules, which are fundamental principles for the use of X-ray crystallography to deduce molecular construction.[110]
1931
Erich Hückel proposes Hückel's rule, which explains when a planar band molecule will accept aromatic backdrop.[111]
1931
Harold Urey discovers deuterium by fractionally distilling liquid hydrogen.[112]

Model of ii common forms of nylon

1932
James Chadwick discovers the neutron.[113]
1932–1934
Linus Pauling and Robert Mulliken quantify electronegativity, devising the scales that now comport their names.[114]
1935
Wallace Carothers leads a team of chemists at DuPont who invent nylon, one of the near commercially successful synthetic polymers in history.[115]
1937
Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segrè perform the beginning confirmed synthesis of technetium-97, the first artificially produced element, filling a gap in the periodic table. Though disputed, the element may have been synthesized as early as 1925 by Walter Noddack and others.[116]
1937
Eugene Houdry develops a method of industrial scale catalytic dandy of petroleum, leading to the development of the first modern oil refinery.[117]
1937
Pyotr Kapitsa, John Allen and Don Misener produce supercooled helium-four, the first zippo-viscosity superfluid, a substance that displays quantum mechanical properties on a macroscopic scale.[118]
1938
Otto Hahn discovers the procedure of nuclear fission in uranium and thorium.[119]
1939
Linus Pauling publishes The Nature of the Chemical Bond, a compilation of a decades worth of work on chemical bonding. It is one of the most important modern chemical texts. It explains hybridization theory, covalent bonding and ionic bonding as explained through electronegativity, and resonance as a means to explain, among other things, the structure of benzene.[110]
1940
Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson identify neptunium, the lightest and first synthesized transuranium element, found in the products of uranium fission. McMillan would found a lab at Berkeley that would be involved in the discovery of many new elements and isotopes.[120]
1941
Glenn T. Seaborg takes over McMillan's work creating new diminutive nuclei. Pioneers method of neutron capture and subsequently through other nuclear reactions. Would become the primary or co-discoverer of nine new chemical elements, and dozens of new isotopes of existing elements.[120]
1945
Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, and Charles D. Coryell perform the first confirmed synthesis of Promethium, filling in the terminal "gap" in the periodic tabular array.[121]
1945–1946
Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell develop the process of nuclear magnetic resonance, an analytical technique important in elucidating structures of molecules, especially in organic chemistry.[122]
1951
Linus Pauling uses X-ray crystallography to deduce the secondary construction of proteins.[110]
1952
Alan Walsh pioneers the field of diminutive absorption spectroscopy, an of import quantitative spectroscopy method that allows one to measure specific concentrations of a cloth in a mixture.[123]
1952
Robert Burns Woodward, Geoffrey Wilkinson, and Ernst Otto Fischer discover the construction of ferrocene, one of the founding discoveries of the field of organometallic chemical science.[124]
1953
James D. Watson and Francis Crick propose the structure of Deoxyribonucleic acid, opening the door to the field of molecular biology.[125]
1957
Jens Skou discovers Na⁺/Grand⁺-ATPase, the commencement ion-transporting enzyme.[126]
1958
Max Perutz and John Kendrew utilize X-ray crystallography to elucidate a protein structure, specifically sperm whale myoglobin.[127]
1962
Neil Bartlett synthesizes xenon hexafluoroplatinate, showing for the first time that the noble gases tin can form chemic compounds.[128]
1962
George Olah observes carbocations via superacid reactions.[129]
1964
Richard R. Ernst performs experiments that volition pb to the development of the technique of Fourier transform NMR. This would greatly increase the sensitivity of the technique, and open the door for magnetic resonance imaging or MRI.[130]
1965
Robert Burns Woodward and Roald Hoffmann propose the Woodward–Hoffmann rules, which use the symmetry of molecular orbitals to explicate the stereochemistry of chemical reactions.[124]
1966
Hitoshi Nozaki and Ryōji Noyori discovered the get-go instance of asymmetric catalysis (hydrogenation) using a structurally well-defined chiral transition metallic complex.[131] [132]
1970
John Pople develops the Gaussian program greatly easing computational chemistry calculations.[133]
1971
Yves Chauvin offered an explanation of the reaction mechanism of olefin metathesis reactions.[134]
1975
Karl Barry Sharpless and group discover a stereoselective oxidation reactions including Sharpless epoxidation,[135] [136] Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation,[137] [138] [139] and Sharpless oxyamination.[140] [141] [142]

Buckminsterfullerene, C60

1985
Harold Kroto, Robert Scroll and Richard Smalley discover fullerenes, a form of large carbon molecules superficially resembling the geodesic dome designed by builder R. Buckminster Fuller.[143]
1991
Sumio Iijima uses electron microscopy to observe a type of cylindrical fullerene known as a carbon nanotube, though earlier work had been washed in the field as early on equally 1951. This material is an important component in the field of nanotechnology.[144]
1994
Starting time full synthesis of Taxol by Robert A. Holton and his group.[145] [146] [147]
1995
Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman produce the first Bose–Einstein condensate, a substance that displays breakthrough mechanical properties on the macroscopic calibration.[148]

21st century [edit]

See also [edit]

  • History of chemistry
  • Nobel Prize in chemical science
  • List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
  • Timeline of chemical elements discoveries

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Servos, John W., Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling : the making of a scientific discipline in America, Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-691-08566-viii

External links [edit]

  • Eric Weisstein's Earth of Scientific Biography
  • History of Gas Chemical science
  • list of all Nobel Prize laureates
  • History of Elements of the Periodic Table

routtpenot1949.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry

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